Indian Journal of Public Health Research & Development
Indian Journal of Public Health Research & Development is a double -blind peer reviewed international journal. The journal deals with all aspects of Public Health including Community Medicine, Public Health, Epidemiology, Occupational Health, Environmental Hazards, Clinical Research including clinical biochemistry and Public Health Laws and covers all medical specialties concerned with research and development for the masses. The journal strongly encourages reports of research carried out within Indian subcontinent and South East Asia. The journal has been assigned International Standards Serial Number (ISSN)Print ISSN: 0976-0245, Online ISSN: 0976-5506. The journal is indexed with Google Scholar, Scili,EBSCOhost (USA),Embase (upto Jan 2025) and many other international databases. This is an open access journal which means that all content is freely available without charge to the user or his/her institution. Users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author. This is in accordance with the BOAI definition of open access.
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Morbidity Profile and Health Service Utilisation at a 24-hour Transit Point Mini Hospital and Two First Aid Camps during Gangasagar Mela, Kolkata (9-17 January 2026): A Retrospective Public Health Analysis
Background: Mass gatherings generate sudden, time-limited surges in demand for primary care, triage, emergency referral, and public health surveillance.1,2 Transit point facilities are strategically important but remain underreported in the Indian mass-gathering literature.7,10 This study assessed morbidity profile, service utilisation, and operational outcomes at a 24-hour transit point mini hospital and two first-aid camps during Gangasagar Mela 2026. Methods: A retrospective descriptive observational study was conducted using routinely maintained OPD, emergency, observation, and referral registers from Outram Ghat, Kolkata, for 9-17 January 2026. All eligible patient encounters were included by complete enumeration. Duplicate and incomplete records were excluded. Data were summarized using frequencies and percentages. Chi-square testing, one-way ANOVA, and quadratic trend modelling were used for selected comparisons. Results: A total of 6,480 patients were managed, including 6,472 OPD visits and 8 observation cases. Peak OPD attendance occurred on 12 January 2026 (n=1,037). The leading categories were bodyache (n=1,498, 23.1%), acidity/ dyspepsia (n=955, 14.8%), fever (n=895, 13.8%), common cold (n=654, 10.1%), cough (n=577, 8.9%), and loose motion (n=542, 8.4%). Male patients constituted 62.6% of all patients managed. Referral rate was low (8/6480, 0.12%). Morbidity distribution varied significantly across days (chi-square=798.4, df=96, p<0.001). Conclusion: The transit point mini hospital and first aid camps absorbed a high outpatient burden dominated by self-limiting musculoskeletal, gastrointestinal, febrile, and respiratory complaints, while maintaining safe referral for high-acuity events. The findings support the role of decentralised transit point medical systems, syndromic surveillance, and preventive preparedness in mass-gathering health management.
Copyright (c) 2026 Kausik Kumar Sarangi, Shilpi Sen, Rama Bhunia https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Hypochlorous Acid for Community Level Wound Management: A New Horizon in Public Health
Background& Objectives: Hypochlorous acid (HOCl) is a safe antimicrobi aleffective for wound care in areas burdened by chronic infections such as mycetoma. Its broad antimicrobial activity, biofilm disruption, and exceptional tissue compatibility make it well-suited for the long-term management of complex wounds. In mycetoma-endemic regions, HOCl offers a practical assistant for infection control and improved wound healing, providing a low-cost option for strengthening community-level care. Methods: This preliminary field-based humanitarian effectiveness, observational study evaluated the topical application of HOCl on seven patients with mycetoma lesions in Wad Shigidi Village, Sudan. The HOCl intervention was adjunctive and topical, not systemic. Weekly field visits were conducted, and lesion responses were documented using photographic and clinical criteria. Results: Patients demonstrated marked reductions in lesion size, discharge, and pain. No adverse effects were reported. Interpretation & Conclusions: HOCl shows promise as a safe, low-cost topical agent for mycetoma and other wound care at the community level in humanitarian settings. Further studies are warranted.
Copyright (c) 2026 Suad Sulaiman, Elfadil Osman, Bakri Nour, Mohamed Saud, Hanan Ali, Alsharief Nour, Hassan ElShami, Eric Rasmussen, Jeffrey Williams https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Elimination of Urinary Schistosomiasis in Iraq: A Historical Review and Path to WHO Certification
Context: Urinary schistosomiasis, caused by Schistosoma haematobium, was once a major neglected tropical disease (NTD) endemic across sub-Saharan Africa, the Nile Valley, and parts of the Middle East, including Iraq. The disease relies on freshwater snails of the genus Bulinus as an obligate intermediate host. This review aimed to characterise the full epidemiological trajectory of S. haematobium in Iraq from earliest records to the present day. Methods: Epidemiological databases (Communicable Diseases Control Center/Iraq, PubMed, ISI, Scopus) were searched for records spanning 1919 to July 2025. Results: Iraq’s National Schistosomiasis Control Programme achieved a dramatic decline in infection prevalence — from 27% in 1954 to 0.02% in 2002 — through integrated strategies encompassing mass treatment with praziquantel, molluscicide-based snail control, engineering interventions, and sustained health education. No locally acquired cases have been recorded since 2011, and comprehensive vector surveillance has confirmed the absence of Bulinus truncatus from all 19 governorates. Iraq is currently in the WHO-guided elimination certification process. Conclusions: Urinary schistosomiasis has been effectively eliminated as a public health problem in Iraq through decades of coordinated national and international effort. Pending WHO/EMRO formal verification, Iraq stands as a regional model for NTD elimination in the Middle East.
Copyright (c) 2026 Talah Khudhair Abbas, Sinan Ghazi Mahdi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Lessons From My 30 Years of Snakebite Management
Inspite of various guidelines for snakebite management, in real life, every case of snakebite poses a unique challenge and one may not always be able to abide strictly by the guidelines. There are a just a handful of physicians who are experts in managing snakebite. This article has been written by Dr D C Patel in Dharampur, Gujarat who has been treating snakebite victims for more than 30 years. This short communication draws on over three decades of clinical data and practice-based insights, offering guidance for public health professionals and community medicine practitioners in remote, resource-constrained settings. Data from April 1993 to March 2024 has been presented along with tips on snakebite management. His analysis presents a few insights- Russell’s viper bites have increased steeply over the years in Dharampur area and Valsad district of Gujarat. The mean number of vials used to manage bites by various species have fallen over time. Regular public awareness programshave borne fruit. Fewer patients visit faith healers and they reach the hospital quickly. Management of cases using the syndromic approach, early and adequate administration of clinically estimated amount of AVS along with organ support is the essential triad of management.
Copyright (c) 2026 Patel DC, Sovani VB https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Oral Health Alterations Associated With Menopause: A Comparative Analysis of Pre- and Post-Menopausal Women.
Background: Menopause is a natural physiological transition characterized by a decline in estrogen and progesterone levels, which can influence both systemic and oral health. The presence of estrogen receptors in oral tissues renders them susceptible to hormonal fluctuations, leading to various oral complaints. However, these manifestations are often under-recognized in clinical practice. The present study aimed to evaluate and compare oral health alterations, including oral and psychological symptoms, dental status, periodontal health, and clinical findings, between premenopausal and postmenopausal women. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional comparative study was conducted among 200 women, comprising 100 premenopausal and 100 postmenopausal participants. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire covering demographic details, oral and psychological symptoms, and oral hygiene practices. Clinical examination assessed dental status, periodontal condition, and oral mucosal changes. Statistical analysis was performed using descriptive statistics and Chi-square test, with p < 0.05 considered statistically significant. Results: Postmenopausal women demonstrated a significantly higher prevalence of oral symptoms such as xerostomia (48% vs. 18%), burning mouth sensation (20% vs. 2%), altered taste (45% vs. 19%), halitosis (38% vs. 12%), orofacial pain (43% vs. 6%), and dysphagia (40% vs. 5%) (p < 0.05). Psychological symptoms including depression, anxiety, sleep disturbances, and memory impairment were also more frequent. Furthermore, postmenopausal women exhibited reduced dentition, increased prosthetic needs, poorer oral hygiene practices, and higher occurrence of mucosal conditions. Conclusion: Postmenopausal women experience significantly greater oral and psychological health alterations compared to premenopausal women, highlighting the importance of targeted preventive and therapeutic oral healthcare strategies during menopause.
Copyright (c) 2026 Sujal R Chorge, Kamala KA, Sankethguddad, Ashwinirani SR, Madhura Mahajan https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Association between CTG Parameters One Hour before Delivery and Neonatal Asphyxia
Background: Cardiotocography (CTG) is a vital tool in obstetric practice for real-time fetal monitoring. However, its predictive value in identifying neonatal asphyxia remains underexplored, particularly in the critical hour before delivery. Aim of the Study: This study investigates the association between CTG monitoring in the last hour before delivery and neonatal asphyxia, aiming to evaluate its predictive value. Patients and Methods:This study is a descriptive retrospectivecohort study conducted at Al-Elwiya Maternity Teaching Hospital between January 2024 and January 2025. The study included 250 pregnant women presented with labourcondition to the mentionedhospital, CTG monitoring was applied continuously. After delivery (whether by vaginal delivery or caesarean section)CTG of last hour before delivery was compared for the neonates who had asphyxia and those without asphyxia. Inclusion criteria were: Term months, no history of taking drug, before delivery that affects the heart rate of the foetus (as magnesium sulphate, narcotics and pain killers), no history of fever, no history of drugs, addition, not smoker, not alcoholic, babies without congenital anomalies. Exclusion criteria: Preterms, mothers with medical disease like diabetes mellitus and hypertension,addiction to smoking and alcohol, mothers taking drugs that affect the heart rate of the focus like (magnesium sulphate, narcotics and pain killers, maternal fever, neonates with congenital anomaly, extremes of reproductive age group and extremes of BMI (<18.5 or ≥ 25 kg/m2). Results: Pathological CTG patterns were observed in 70% of the asphyxia group, compared to 1.6% in the non-asphyxia group. Late decelerations, absent variability, and accelerations were significantly associated with asphyxia. Caesarean delivery was more common in the asphyxia group. The need of NICU admissions further emphasized the poor neonatal outcomes. Conclusion: CTG monitoring in the last hour before delivery shows significant predictive potential for neonatal asphyxia. Specific CTG patterns can guide timely obstetric interventions, which can lead to improve neonatal outcomes.
Copyright (c) 2026 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Nutritional Status in Relation to Food Habits and Lifestyles among Adolescent Boys and Girls of Sombaria Village, West Sikkim
Background: Nutritional status is the health status of an individual resulting from the intake and utilisation of nutrients. Adolescence is a nutritionally vulnerable developmental stage, and insufficient dietary intake can lead to delayed sexual maturation and growth. Objective: The present study was conducted to assess the nutritional status in relation to food habits and lifestyles among adolescent boys and girls of Sombaria village, West Sikkim. Methods: Cross-sectional data on 100 adolescent boys and 100 adolescent girls were collected through a random sampling method from Sombaria village. An anthropometric rod and a weighing scale were used to measure height and weight respectively, following the standard technique of Lohman et al. Data on different food habits, exercise, sleeping hours and television time were collected from each subject. The prevalence of underweight and overweight was calculated by using z-scores for BMI for age and sex recommended by the WHO. Results: The present study shows that the prevalence of underweight was found the same between adolescent boys (4.00%) and girls (4.00%). However, the prevalence of overweight/obesity was slightly higher among adolescent boys (13.00%) than girls (11.00%). The study reported the higher prevalence of overweight/obesity in both boys (15.76%) and girls (15.68%) who preferred restaurant foods. Conclusion: Prevalence of overweight/obesity was higher than underweight in both sexes in the present study. Underweight was found to be more or less the same in both vegetarian and non-vegetarian adolescent boys and girls. However, the prevalence of overweight/obesity was higher in both sexes who preferred restaurant foods over home-cooked foods.
Morbidity Pattern and Knowledge on Medication among elderly population at Suraram, India
BACKGROUND: Ageing of the Population is a great human success story.Longevity leads to more numbers of older persons, eventually leading to a continuously growing share of older persons in the population mix.Preparingfor the economic and social shifts associated with this sector of population is essential to ensure the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030. OBJECTIVES:To assess the magnitude and pattern of morbidity among the elder population and to assess the knowledge on medication among them MATERIALS AND METHODS:A facility-based cross-sectional study was conducted at the Community Health Centre (CHC), a field practice area of the Department of Community Medicine, Malla Reddy Medical College for Women (MRMCW), located in Medchal–Malkajgiri district, Telangana. Data were analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS; IBM Corp., Chicago, IL, version 22). Descriptive and inferential statistical analyses were performed, with a p-value < 0.05 considered statistically significant. Results are presented as absolute numbers and percentages in tabular form. RESULTS:Of the participants, 149 (75%) reported having at least one chronic disease. Demographic variables such as age, religion, and caste showed a statistically significant association with morbidity (p < 0.05). Among participants with comorbidities, only 98 (49%) reported taking medications as prescribed by their physicians. When experiencing illness or adverse effects related to medication, the majority—53 (54%)—did not inform anyone, while 45 (46%) consulted their physician. CONCLUSION:The high morbidity load among elderly in the present study stress the efforts to provide better health care services and ensure that they remain active members of the society. This would help policymakers to strengthen health care services to the elderly population at state and national level to achieve Sustained Development Goals by 20230. This special group should be well informed about the medicines by the attending Physicians/ Pharmacists
Postnatal Exercise and Its Role in Managing Maternal Depression and Anxiety
Background: Two of the most common mental health conditions in the postpartum phase are postpartum depression and postpartum anxiety, which frequently impact domestic life, infant attachment, and maternal well-being. According to recent research, non-pharmacologic interventions specifically, structured exercise—are crucial for maintaining maternal mental health. Objective: the main goal of this review is to evaluate how structured postpartum exercise regimens affect women's postpartum anxiety and depression symptoms. Methods: Postnatal exercise, postpartum anxiety, postpartum depression, and maternal mental health were searched in literature using Pub Med, Scopus, and Google Scholar exhaustively. Meta-analyses, systematic reviews, and randomized controlled trials of studies from 2015 to 2025 were included. Discussion: Walking, yoga, stretching, and aerobic training are examples of gentle to moderate physical exercise, which are linked with improvement in mood regulation, balance of cortisol and serotonin levels, self-esteem, and social support. Exercise improves the physical and mental recovery of postpartum women when added to routine care. Conclusions: Exercise after childbirth is an innocuous, valuable, and efficient adjunct therapy for decreasing depression and anxiety among mothers. Systematic exercise is able to improve mother screening outcomes, increase the health of families, and provide long-term recuperation when incorporated into daily postpartum care.
Assessment of Anthropometric Profile, Dietary Intake and Nutrient Adequacy among Middle-Aged Adults with Long Duration Type 2 Diabetes in Mumbai: A cross-sectional study
Background: Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus is a major public health concern in India, with increasing prevalence among middle-aged adults. Nutritional status plays a crucial role in glycemic control and prevention of complications, particularly in individuals with long-duration disease. However, limited hospital-based data are available regarding anthropometric profile and nutrient adequacy among such patients. Methods: An observational cross-sectional study was conducted with a total of 75 people aged 55-65 years (with long duration type 2 diabetes) in Mumbai city. A personal survey (Face-to-face Interview) was taken and information about their anthropometry and dietary habits were recorded. A food frequency questionnaire, 24- hour recall and dietary diversity were used to assess their nutrient intakes. Result: According to their BMI, a greater number of people were obese. In the nutrient analysis, consumption of energy was low compared to EAR (1321.05 ± 241.91kcal & 1061.09 ± 249.40 kcal) and consumption of fat (54.9g ± 9.314 & 41.7g ± 10.094) and carbohydrate (144.16g ± 23.852& 134.79g ± 32.610) were high in both males and females respectively. Protein consumption was slightly higher than EAR (45.5g ± 8.396 & 37.8g ±12.670) in both males and females respectively. Conclusion: The study highlights a high prevalence of overweight and nutrient imbalance among middle-aged adults with long-duration Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Regular nutritional assessment and individualized dietary counselling should be integrated into routine diabetes care to improve long-term outcomes.
Copyright (c) 2026 Hema Goenka, Reema Mathur https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Antimicrobial Resistance: New Mechanisms, Surveillance Strategies and Novel Approaches
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) represents a critical and escalating global public health threat, driven primarily by the overuse and misuse of antibiotics in human medicine, agriculture, and animal production. The emergence and dissemination of multidrug-resistant (MDR) organisms are further accelerated by horizontal gene transfer, environmental reservoirs, and inadequate infection prevention and control practices. Recent global estimates indicate that bacterial AMR was directly responsible for 1.27 million global deaths in 2019 and contributed to 4.95 million deaths, with projections suggesting substantial increases in mortality and economic burden if effective interventions are not implemented. This review summarizes the major molecular mechanisms underlying antimicrobial resistance, including enzymatic drug inactivation, target modification, porin modifications, efflux pump overexpression, and biofilm formation. Innovative approaches, including phage therapy, CRISPR-based antimicrobials, monoclonal antibodies, nanomaterials, vaccination and artificial intelligence (AI) are highlighted as promising next-generation alternatives. Despite scientific advances, the antibiotic development pipeline remains constrained by economic and regulatory challenges. Sustained research and development, strengthened antimicrobial stewardship, global surveillance, and collaborative industry-academic partnerships are essential to preserve existing therapies and ensure future treatment options against MDR pathogens.
Copyright (c) 2026 Shweta Sawant, Inayat Kabir https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Beyond pharmacological reductionism: Reframing community mental health in India
Mental health care in India continues to be shaped largely by a biomedical paradigm that prioritises diagnosis and pharmacological treatment while insufficiently addressing the social and structural determinants of psychological distress. Such an approach risks pathologising normal responses to chronic adversity and inadequately serving populations facing poverty, gender-based violence, caste discrimination and other forms of structural oppression. This commentary argues for a shift towards inclusive, community-based mental health systems integrated within primary health care. Drawing on evidence from Indian programmes such as the National Mental Health Programme, District Mental Health Programme, VISHRAM and Sangath, the paper highlights the need for culturally responsive, decentralised and socially grounded approaches that move beyond pharmacological reductionism to improve population mental wellbeing.
Copyright (c) 2026 Kimberley D'Souza https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Public Perceptions of Robotic versus Laparoscopic Surgery in India: A Knowledge, Attitudes, and Perceptions (KAP) Survey
Background: Minimally invasive surgery (MIS) has transformed surgical care by reducing postoperative pain, complications, and recovery time. Laparoscopic surgery and robotic-assisted surgery (RAS) are the two principal MIS approaches; however, public understanding of their differences remains limited. This study assessed the knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions (KAP) of the Indian public toward laparoscopic and robotic surgery. Methods: A cross-sectional, questionnaire-based survey was conducted among Indian adults (≥18 years) who were patients or caregivers involved in surgical decision-making. A previously published questionnaire adapted from Brar et al. (2024) was used. The 20-item online survey assessed demographics, knowledge, perceptions of safety and cost, and surgical preferences. Healthcare professionals were excluded. Descriptive statistics were calculated using SPSS. Results: Forty-six respondents completed the survey (51.1% male; 48.9% female). Doctors were the primary source of information for laparoscopic (61.0%) and robotic surgery (43.5%). Most participants (60.9%) perceived both approaches as equally safe, while 28.3% believed robotic surgery offered better outcomes. Robotic surgery was perceived as more expensive by 80.4% of respondents. Mean trust scores were high for both techniques on a five-point Likert scale (laparoscopic: 4.26 ± 0.85; robotic: 4.08 ± 0.94). Surgical decisions were mainly influenced by physicians (60.9%), followed by self-education (32.6%). Conclusion: Respondents demonstrated high awareness and trust in minimally invasive surgery. Both laparoscopic and robotic approaches were perceived as safe and effective; however, robotic surgery was consistently viewed as more expensive. Surgical decision-making remained predominantly doctor-led, with an emerging trend toward patient self-education and shared decision-making.
Copyright (c) 2026 Sanika Bihani, Adarsh Keshari https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Time of last meal and its association with indices of metabolic health in young Indian adults
Background: Chrono-nutrition explores the role of meal timing, frequency, and regularity in shaping metabolic health through circadian mechanisms. Evidence indicates that glucose metabolism, insulin secretion, and appetite regulation follow circadian rhythms and are influenced by the temporal distribution of energy intake. Late or evening-skewed eating patterns and circadian misalignment, common in modern lifestyles, are associated with poorer metabolic outcomes. This study examined the association between meal timing, percent body fat, blood glucose, and insulin levels in adolescents and young adults (16-25 years old). Methods: Of 1,313 apparently adolescents and young adults screened, complete data were available for 1,015 participants after applying predefined exclusion criteria. Body composition was assessed using bioelectrical impedance, while fasting and 2-hour post-glucose blood samples were analysed for plasma glucose, insulin, and HbA1c using standard methods. Meal timing was recorded based on the last meal consumed the previous night, and data were analysed using SPSS 27 with p<0.05 considered statistically significant. Results: Among the 1,015 participants, 42.6% were males and 57.4% females, with 41.2% aged 16–18 years and 58.8% aged 19–25 years. The mean time of the last meal was 20.57 ± 1.10 h, ranging from 17:00 to 23:30 h. Later meal timing was associated with significantly higher percent body fat, while muscle mass was significantly greater among those who consumed their last meal earlier. Participants in the earliest meal-timing quintile had significantly lower stimulated glucose, fasting and post-glucose insulin levels, and HOMA-IR compared with later quintiles. Time of last meal showed positive correlations with percent body fat, glucose and insulin indices, and a negative correlation with muscle mass. Conclusion: Late timing of the last meal was associated with higher insulin levels, increased adiposity, and poorer metabolic profiles among adolescents and young adults. These findings suggest that eating patterns misaligned with circadian rhythms may predispose metabolically healthy youth to future metabolic risk. Promoting earlier meal timing and appropriate redistribution of energy intake during waking hours may serve as a feasible strategy for metabolic health prevention.
Copyright (c) 2026 Sharvari Desai, Shobha A. Udipi, Jagmeet Madan, Panchali Moitra, Sheryl Salis, Soumik Kalita, Rama Vaidya https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Examining how Nudge Theory-Based Interventions can Positively Affect Diabetes Patients on AKAP in Sikkim
Introduction: Diabetes mellitus, a lifestyle illness, is a major public health problem around the world, and its numbers are growing in India, and Sikkim, a northeastern state, is no exception. Sikkim, often known to have a pristine environment where people come for rejuvenation, also shares the same burden when it comes to the incidence of lifestyle diseases such as diabetes mellitus. Hence, effective management is very crucial, and it largely depends on patients' awareness, knowledge, attitude, and practices (AKAP) regarding the condition. Aim: This study aimed to examine the impact of interventions such as telephonic reminders based on nudge theory combined with ambassadors on the AKAP of diabetes patients in Sikkim. Methods: This study selected 160 diabetes patients from Sikkim via purposive sampling (80 experimental, 80 control). Both groups were asked to complete a 5-point Likert scale questionnaire to assess the Awareness, Knowledge, Attitude, and Practices (AKAP) before any intervention. The experimental group then received an intervention in the form of whatsaap messaging, telephonic calls combined with an ambassador, while the control group did not. Both the groups re-completed the AKAP questionnaire post the intervention. Data were analysed using SPSS 25, using paired t-tests for within-group comparisons and ANCOVA to study the impact between-groups. Results: Paired t-test results showed that there was no significant change in pre- and post-intervention AKAP scores for diabetes patients in the control group. Conversely, the treatment group showed a significant increase in their mean scores for awareness, knowledge, attitude, and practices related to diabetes from pre- to post-intervention. Aditionally, the ANCOVA results validated that the nudge theory-based intervention, combined with consultation, had a positive and significant impact on the awareness, knowledge, attitudes, and practices of diabetes patients. Implications: This study highlights the effectiveness of using nudge theory as an approach to improve health behaviours amongst people in Sikkim, indicating that subtle cues and consultations empower patients to make better health choices. It highlights the importance of ongoing telephonic interventions combined with ambassador or consultation for improving AKAP, resulting in enhanced self-care and reduced complications. Policymakers and healthcare providers can use these nudge based results to create health initiatives that are scalable and culturally appropriate. Conclusion: This study shows how nudge theory-based interventions, when combined with consultation, can significantly improve the awareness, knowledge, attitude, and practices of diabetes patients in Sikkim. These results indicate that such interventions can act as an effective approach to improve diabetes self-care attitude and patient’s health behaviour.
Copyright (c) 2026 Swastika Thapa, Manesh Choubey https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Green space Access to the Disadvantaged using Park Service Area Analysis: A Study of Bhubaneswar
Urban green spaces (UGS) are widely recognized for their significant health and well-being benefits. However, recent research highlights increasing disparities in access to these spaces, particularly among disadvantaged groups. This study investigates the accessibility of UGS for disadvantaged community groups in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India. Methods: Disadvantaged communities, particularly slum settlements, were identified using high-resolution satellite imagery. Data on urban green spaces were sourced from previous studies. A network analysis was conducted in QGIS to delineate Park Service Areas (PSAs) using a 500-meter walking distance threshold from park entry points, assessing the accessibility of urban green spaces. Results: Among Bhubaneswar’s 67 wards, approximately 42 wards demonstrated that only 0–25% of slum areas fall within a 500-meter PSA. In 8 wards, 25–50% of slum areas were covered. Notably, only 9 wards showed 75–100% coverage of slum areas by PSA. These findings reveal a significant deficit in UGS access for slum dwellers and residents of informal settlements. Conclusion: This study underscores the urgent need for spatially equitable planning of urban green spaces. The findings can inform urban planners and landscape designers in optimizing the distribution of green spaces and strategically placing park entry points to enhance accessibility for marginalized communities.
Copyright (c) 2026 Monalipa Dash https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Psychometric Properties of “Pragati Pustak” :- A Parent Oriented Screening Tool for Developmental Delay.
Background: Early identification of developmental delay in infancy is crucial for timely intervention, especially in low-resource settings. Pragati Pustak, a culturally adapted parent-reported screening tool, addresses gaps in community-based surveillance for children up to 2 years.​ Objectives: To develop and validate face/content validity and reliability of Pragati Pustak for detecting developmental delays. Methodology: Iterative development via stakeholder focus groups and expert reviews yielded a bilingual, pictorial Yes/No booklet (milestones 3-24 months; warning signs 3-15 months). Face validity used 4-point Likert scales (15 experts, 15 parents). Content validity applied CVI metrics. Reliability assessed KR-20 internal consistency and Cohen's kappa test-retest (n=6998, 14-day interval).​ Results: Face validity showed ≥80% endorsement. I-CVI ≥0.90; S-CVI/Ave=0.98. KR-20 ranged 0.60-0.95; kappa >0.85 (almost perfect).​ Conclusion: Pragati Pustak offers robust psychometrics, enabling reliable parent-led screening in primary care.
Copyright (c) 2026 Suvarna S. Ganvir, Chetana Kunde Kunde, Jasmine A. Shaikh, Maheshwari Harishchandre, Shyam D. Ganvir https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Imagery and Insight: A Qualitative Visual Analysis of Paediatric Cancer Patients’ Drawings on Clinical Research Using the DRAWEP Framework
Background: Paediatric assent and engagement in clinical research pose ethical and developmental challenges, particularly when research concepts are communicated primarily through verbal explanations. Visual methods such as drawing offer an alternative pathway to capture children’s thinking and to better understand their unspoken perspectives. Objective: To explore how paediatric cancer patients conceptualize clinical research and clinical trials through hand-drawn posters, using the Drawing-Based Emotional Processing (DRAWEP) framework supported by AI-assisted qualitative analysis. Methods: This qualitative exploratory study involved secondary analysis of hand-drawn posters created by children during an International Clinical Trials Day (ICTD 2025) awareness activity conducted by a national pediatric oncology non-governmental organization. Posters were anonymized, digitized, and analyzed using the Drawing-Based Emotional Processing (DRAWEP) framework. AI-assisted tools were used to support structured thematic organization, with all interpretations reviewed and validated by human researchers. The DRAWEP framework guided interpretation across the following domains: Description (what is drawn), Reflect (feelings or ideas evoked by the artwork), Analyze (insights into the child’s understanding of research), Wonder (questions arising from the artwork), Evaluate (effectiveness of communication), and Present (summary insight). Results: Six thematic domains emerged, reflecting emotional, relational, and symbolic representations of clinical research. Common themes included hope, trust, process awareness, and compassion. Several posters also revealed misconceptions, particularly the equating of research with a guaranteed cure (therapeutic misconception) and the conflation of clinician and researcher roles. Conclusion: Visual expression through drawing provides a developmentally appropriate window into children’s ethical and emotional perceptions of clinical research. Identifying both understanding and misconceptions through such methods may help inform the development of age-appropriate communication strategies in paediatric research settings.
Copyright (c) 2026 Rhea Aggarwal, Adarsh Keshari, Khushboo Sharma, Saisha Sehrawat, Haresh Gupta, Abir Aggarwal, Padam Singh, Pooja Sharma https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Digital Inequity in Health Access: A Literature Review of Ayushman Bharatand ABDM in India
Background: Ayushman Bharat, launched in 2018, is India’s flagship initiative toward Universal Health Coverage through the Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY) and strengthened primary healthcare services. The Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission (ABDM), introduced in 2021, further aims to improve healthcare access, efficiency, and transparency through digital health innovations. However, emerging evidence suggests that digital inequities may limit equitable access to these initiatives, particularly among rural, low-income, and digitally marginalised populations. Objective: This review examines the role of digital barriers in shaping access to and utilisation of Ayushman Bharat and ABDM, with a focus on digital literacy, infrastructure, awareness, trust, and ethical concerns within the Indian healthcare context. Methods: A narrative literature review was conducted using PubMed, Google Scholar, government reports, and policy documents published between 2018 and 2025. Relevant studies were identified using key search terms related to Ayushman Bharat, ABDM, digital health, and healthcare access in India, and were thematically synthesised. Results: The review identified persistent gaps in awareness and utilisation of PM-JAY and ABDM, especially in rural and underserved areas. Major barriers included low digital literacy, inadequate internet connectivity, limited access to digital devices, and concerns regarding data privacy and system trust. While digital tools such as ABHA IDs, electronic health records, and telemedicine platforms offer significant potential, their benefits remain unevenly distributed. Community-based intermediaries, including ASHAs and Ayushman Mitras, play a crucial role in bridging digital gaps, though systemic challenges persist. Conclusion: Despite notable progress, digital inequities continue to constrain the equity goals of Ayushman Bharat and ABDM. Strengthening digital literacy, ensuring data protection, expanding infrastructure, and maintaining offline access mechanisms are essential for achieving inclusive and equitable Universal Health Coverage in India.
Copyright (c) 2026 Renia Ganguly, Nagaraj Patil https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Assessment of Beneficiaries Satisfaction under Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (AB-PMJAY) in Banda District of Uttar Pradesh
Background: Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana, launched in 2018, is a government-funded health insurance scheme under Ayushman Bharat, targeting 12 crore poor families (~50 crore beneficiaries). It provides ₹5 lakh per family per year for cashless hospital care in empanelled hospitals (public & private)(1). Objectives: This study aimed to assess the satisfaction level of beneficiaries utilizing AB-PMJAY services in the Banda district of the Bundelkhand region and to identify factors influencing their healthcare experiences. Methods: A hospital-based cross-sectional study was conducted among 300 AB-PMJAY beneficiaries selected through population proportion sampling from government and private empanelled hospitals. Data were collected using a pretested, semi-structured questionnaire covering demographics, healthcare utilization, satisfaction levels, and encountered barriers. Statistical analysis was performed using descriptive and inferential methods. Results: The study in Banda district reveals that AB-PMJAY effectively serves rural, elderly, and economically vulnerable populations, with 79% from rural areas and 45.33% unemployed. Satisfaction with services was generally high, especially with doctors (72%) and nursing staff (72.3%). Ayushman Mitras had the highest dissatisfaction (7.3%), indicating scope for improvement. Beneficiaries without treatment issues reported greater satisfaction (28.3% extremely satisfied). Positive outcomes strongly influenced satisfaction, while dissatisfaction was higher among those with no improvement. Surgical treatment yielded higher satisfaction despite issues. Interestingly, even those unaware of the scheme reported good experiences, highlighting the impact of service quality on user perception. Conclusion: The study highlights high overall satisfaction under AB-PMJAY but reveals critical areas needing improvement, including procedural simplifications and medication coverage enhancements.
Integrating Clinical Trials into Clinical Care: Aligning Patient and Physician Perspectives
Background: Clinical trials have traditionally been framed as experimental tools rather than therapeutic options, and the doctor–patient relationship has largely been paternalistic. The emergence of precision medicine and the shift toward patient-centred care challenge this dichotomy, suggesting that clinical trials could be considered part of routine treatment pathways. Methods: A narrative synthesis of published literature was conducted to examine patient and physician perspectives on clinical trials when offered as treatment choices. Evidence was analysed to identify key motivators, barriers, and areas of alignment and divergence between patients and physicians. Results: Patients value access to advanced therapies, close monitoring, and a sense of hope, while physicians emphasise therapeutic innovation and ethical responsibility. Barriers include therapeutic misconception, limited clinician awareness, workload constraints, and logistical challenges. Despite these obstacles, both groups support transparent discussion of clinical trials within clinical care. Conclusion: Integrating clinical trials into treatment frameworks, with informed patients and physicians, ethical safeguards, and institutional support, can make them a legitimate and patient-centred treatment option.
Copyright (c) 2026 Avni Tambi, Rhea Aggarwal, Adarsh Keshari, Khushboo Sharma https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Geographical analysis of Hepatitis-B and Hepatitis-C patients in the selected two districts of Tripura, India-using GIS
Introduction: In India, Hepatitis-B and Hepatitis-C viruses pose serious public health risks, especially in the Tripura, North-Eastern state of India, where high infection rates are caused by inadequate healthcare facilities, risky medical procedures, and a lack of awareness. The purpose of this study is to examine the distribution of Hepatitis-B (HBV) and Hepatitis-B (HCV) cases in the South and Gomati districts of Tripura during 2022-2024 in terms of spatial distribution, gender, and age. Both districts’ rural and tribal communities had extremely high rates of HBV and HCV infections. Methods: Hepatitis-B and Hepatitis-C viruses infected patients in the South Tripura and Gomati Districts of Tripura State are collected from the District Headquarters Government Hospital located in Santir Bazar and Udaipur, The total numbers of Hepatitis-B infected patients from 2022-2024 is 59 and total Number of Hepatitis-C infected patients from 2022-2024 is 25 in South Tripura District. The total number of Hepatitis-B infected patients is 80, and Hepatitis-C is 22 in the Gomati Tripura District during 2022-2024. The total Hepatitis-B and Hepatitis-C virus infected patients records are exported to the Quantum Geographical Information System (QGIS) 3.4 Madeira, the Google Earth pro for mapping and are analysed to assess the association between the socio-demographic factors. Results and Discussion: While Gomati district showed higher treatment adherence for HCV, South Tripura had a higher concentration of HBV patients. Geographical clusters and the pattern of HBV and HCV cases are found in random distribution. The age group of 21–40 is the most infected HBV in the South Tripura district; X² = 15.18, p-value = 0.0096; and Gomati Tripura: X² = 14.77, p-value = 0.0114). Age and HCV prevalence, however, neared statistical significance, suggesting changing patterns of transmission (South Tripura: p-value = 0.0737; Gomati district: p-value = 0.0523). Conclusion: The prevalence of both infections is found highest among the young adult age group of 21–30. In 2024, both illnesses had spread into larger age groups, with elderly populations in Gomati experiencing an increase in instances. In order to effective control measures on Hepatitis-B and C virus infection in the Tripura state, the study emphasizes the value of GIS in identifying high-risk villages and thus, increase of infrastructure resource allocation for improving vaccination coverage, especially for the age group of 21-50.
Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
A Comparative Study of Diseases Prevalence among Tribal Women in Different Villages of Khowai District, Tripura: A Hospital Data - Using GIS
The both communicable and non-communicable diseases that are interfering with normal biological functions which cause mortality or misery on a physical, psychological, or social level impact. Numerous things might cause it, such as infections, genetic flaws, dietary inadequacies, environmental influences, or even lifestyle decisions. The present study is made to assess the disease’s prevalence among tribal women in different villages of Khowai district in Tripura. The study focuses on understanding the health conditions of tribal women based on the government hospital registry. The mapping of spatial distribution and pattern of women cases is carried outusing GIS (Geographic Information System) the study shows the diffusion of diseases across the district. In order to determine the frequency of the diseases in the district, the side specification of 499 cases were analysed, and the result revealed that the categorization of diseases, such as; fever, stomach discomfort, anaemia, weakness, infections, and respiratory issues, areclassified. The most affected age-group of 21-30, and 41-50 are found in the three villages namely; Kalyanpur, Tulakshikhar, and Champa Hour. The results revealed that a Chi-square value (X²) of 15.03, and p-value ˂ 0.005, and hence, the disease prevalence is statistically high significant with the age groups of21-30 and 41-50, are the most affected susceptible women community in the district. The study also examined variables that may impact disease transmission and healthcare availability, such as temperature, slope, and rainfall. This study emphasises the need for improved healthcare infrastructure, education, and prompt treatment among tribal communities.
Investigating the Knowledge, Attitudes, Practices, and Growth Outcomes of Breastfeeding Among Indian Mother-Infant
Objective: To assess breastfeeding knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) among Indian suburban mothers and evaluate their correlation with infant anthropometric outcomes, identifying socioeconomic and behavioral factors associated with growth faltering. Methods: Cross-sectional study of 60 mother-infant dyads in Zahreeabad, Telangana. Data included structured questionnaires on demographics and KAP metrics, plus objective anthropometric measurements compared against age-/sex-matched standards. Descriptive and correlational analyses examined associations between maternal factors and infant growth. Results: Mean maternal age was 27.47±4.24 years; 75% were homemakers(N=45), 60% held Bachelor's degrees or higher (N=36). Early breastfeeding initiation (≤1 hour) occurred in 65%(N=39), with universally positive attitudes. Maternal education is significantly correlated with breastfeeding knowledge (p=0.824), though knowledge scores didn't differ between mothers maintaining versus discontinuing exclusive breastfeeding (EBF). Descriptively, c-section infants showed 2.42 cm greater length deficits than vaginal births. Despite 85% of infants exhibiting stunting and 55% showing weight deficits, 85% of mothers rated growth as "Average" or "Above Average," revealing a critical perception-reality gap. Conclusions: High breastfeeding knowledge and positive attitudes don't prevent growth faltering, with 85% of infants stunted despite strong maternal awareness. Structural barriers—particularly C-sections (85% of delayed initiations) and early complementary feeding (p = .042)—critically impair outcomes. A profound perception gap exists: 85% of mothers rated stunted growth as "Average" or above. Interventions must address clinical barriers and maternal perceptual frameworks, not just knowledge dissemination.
Copyright (c) 2026 Ruthika Matapathi, Pavan Kumar https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Agricultural Chemical Exposure and Worker Health: An Epidemiological Review
Agricultural workers are susceptible to a range of chemicals, such as pesticides, fertilizers, and other agrochemicals, which pose significant risks to their health. Understanding the epidemiology of exposure to these chemical hazards is crucial for developing effective preventive strategies and improving occupational health standards among agricultural workers. The review aims to synthesize existing research on the prevalence, types, and health effects of chemical exposures among agricultural workers. The prevalence of chemical exposures was high, with significant regional variations. Health effects ranged from acute symptoms like skin irritation and respiratory issues to chronic conditions such as cancer, neurotoxicity, and reproductive problems. Several studies highlighted the increased vulnerability of certain subgroups, including women, children, and migrant workers. Additionally, the review found that chemical hazards not only impact human health but also pose serious threats to environmental safety, leading to soil degradation, water contamination, and biodiversity loss. There is a critical need for enhanced regulatory measures, improved safety practices, and targeted interventions to mitigate these risks. Furthermore, the environmental impact of these chemicals underscores the necessity for sustainable agricultural methods that protect both human well-being and the ecosystem. Future research must assess combined chemical exposures and preventive strategies across agricultural settings.
Copyright (c) 2026 Nayanabai Shabadi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Dementia in Developing countries: A Community-Focused Review of Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Public Health Priorities
Background: Dementia is an emerging public health priority due to rapid population ageing, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), where over 60% of affected individuals reside. In India, national estimates overlook substantial regional and rural–urban variation, and community-based evidence remains limited. Objective: To review evidence on the prevalence, risk factors, methodological approaches, screening tools, and public health response to dementia, with emphasis on community-based studies from LMICs, especially India. Methods: A narrative review of literature published between January 2000 and June 2024 was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar. Community-based epidemiological studies, relevant reviews, and policy documents were included. Hospital-based studies and those focusing exclusively on pharmacological or molecular aspects were excluded. Thirty-seven articles were synthesized thematically. Results: Global dementia prevalence is projected to increase from about 57 million in 2019 to over 150 million by 2050, with the fastest rise in LMICs. In India, prevalence among adults aged ≥60 years ranges from 4.5% to 11% across states, with higher burden influenced by education, lifestyle, and healthcare access. Nearly 45% of dementia cases are attributable to modifiable life-course risk factors. Community-based studies using culturally appropriate screening tools provide more accurate estimates, though methodological challenges persist. Conclusion: Addressing dementia as a public health priority requires strengthening community-based research and integrating prevention, early detection, and care into existing health systems in LMICs.
Copyright (c) 2026 Varalakshmi B, T Suriyakumar, Prahankumar Rajendiran https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Study of Breast Cytology Smears Using The International Academy of Cytology Yokohama System for Reporting Breast Fine Needle Aspiration Biopsy Cytopathology
Background: Breast cancer is a major global health burden, especially in low- and middle-income regions where fine-needle aspiration cytology (FNAC/FINE NEEDLE ASPIRATION CYTOLOGY) remains a widely used diagnostic tool. The International Academy of Cytology (IAC) Yokohama System provides a standardized, evidence-based framework to improve diagnostic consistency in breast cytology. Objective: To evaluate the diagnostic utility, accuracy, and risk of malignancy (ROM) of the IAC Yokohama System in categorizing breast FNAC/FINE NEEDLE ASPIRATION CYTOLOGY samples in a tertiary care setting. Methods: A prospective study of 128 FNAC/FINE NEEDLE ASPIRATION CYTOLOGY samples from 120 patients was conducted and categorized according to the IAC Yokohama System. Cyto-histopathological correlation was available for 26 cases. Diagnostic performance indices were calculated using MedCalc. Results: The distribution of cases was: Category 2 (Benign), 78.1%; Category 3 (Atypical), 3.3%; Category 4 (Suspicious), 3.3%; and Category 5 (Malignant), 15.6%. No Category 1 cases were recorded. Fibroadenoma was the most common benign lesion (38.2%). Overall cyto-histopathological concordance was 84.6%. ROM was 0% (Category 2), 66.7% (Category 3), and 100% for Categories 4 and 5. Diagnostic performance showed sensitivity 40.0%, specificity 95.2%, positive predictive value 66.7%, negative predictive value 87.0%, and overall accuracy 84.6%. Conclusion: The IAC Yokohama System enhances the diagnostic reliability of FNAC/FINE NEEDLE ASPIRATION CYTOLOGY for distinguishing benign and malignant breast lesions. However, indeterminate categories (3 and 4) continue to require histopathological confirmation. The system offers significant value in resource-constrained settings, though larger multicentric studies are warranted to refine ROM estimates and strengthen generalizability.
Copyright (c) 2026 Shezan Rasool, Rajnish Kumar, Alok Mohan, Anupam Varshney, Zartab Zaki https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Implementation of Pharmacy Services for Cases of Acute Non-Dehydrated Diarrhea in Children in South Tangerang City, Banten, Indonesia
Background Self-medication for minor ailment is a common practice worldwide, including in Indonesia such as when patient seek medication with acute non-dehydration diarrhea but many studies reported that there was still problems in patient knowledge when conducting their self medication. This study aimed to examine the implementation of services provided by Pharmacy staff in South Tangerang City, Banten Province, Indonesia, for pediatric patients with acute non-dehydration diarrhea. Methods This study had a cross-sectional design and the data obtained were described descriptively. Data were collected by interviewing selected pharmacy staff to explore how they responded or provided services to patients who asked for their advice on managing diarrhea. The interview rubric was created by referring to minor ailments service flow, which includes three parameters: the patient assessment, the drug recommendations given, and the information conveyed to patients. The sample were staff from 43 pharmacies in the South Tangerang city area who were randomly selected based on pharmacy data obtained from the local city health office. Conclusion As many as 48.84% of pharmacy staff provided treatment consistent with WHO recommendations. Pharmacy staff need to improve their role in managing acute non-dehydration diarrhea patient.
Copyright (c) 2026 Yardi Saibi, Alysa Prameswary, Vidia Arlaini Anwar https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Dietary Patterns among Urban and Rural School Teachers in Guntur District of Andhra Pradesh
Introduction: Urban and rural diets in India are subject to influences like income, food availability, and life styles. As school teachers are also health promoters and role models for their students and communities, this study was set to identify the dietary patterns of urban and rural school teachers in Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, India along with comparison of anthropometrics and Diet Related Non-Communicable Disease (DRNCDs). Methods: This descriptive study involved all teachers of five schools each from rural and urban mandals of Guntur district selected by simple random sampling. A predetermined questionnaire covering various aspects of diet, socio – demographic variables and anthropometric measurements like height, weight, BMI and waist hip-ratio were administered to each teacher after taking an informed consent. Data was entered in MS excel and presented in tables and graphs. Important findings were subjected to tests of significance like Chi square test at 5 % Level of Significance. Results: Chronic non communicable illnesses were present in 27.6% of the rural teachers and 66.0% of urban teachers (Chi square 16.5%, p value < .0001, OR 5.1, 95% CI 2.1 to 12.5). DRNCDs were present in 27 (46.6%) rural teachers and 24 (45.3%) urban teachers.86.8% of the male teachers and 43.1% of the female teachers were obese according to their BMI (Chi Square 22.93, p value <0.0001). Normal BMI was not seen in any of them. Urban teachers and families were indulging more in junk foods probably due to more access (Chi Sq 5.9, p 0.01). 66.7% of all the teachers were unsure if their diets were complete or healthy. Discussion: Significant gender differences were found in the anthropometric measurements which were more adverse in the males. Important dietary patterns based on intake of breakfast daily, beverages, spicy foods, junk foods, fresh fruits and vegetables, nutritional, ayurvedic and homeopathic supplements. Conclusion: Knowledge of dietary patterns enables identification of unhealthy practices prevalent in the community. There is a need for educating the communities about balanced and healthy diets.
Copyright (c) 2026 G. Mohan Chandrasekhar, Samson Sanjeeva Rao Nallapu https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Giant Seborrheic keratosis- A Rare Entity
Background: Seborrheic Keratosis (SK) is most common benign epidermal tumor with distinctive “stuck on” appearance. It appears on the sun-exposed sites with equal sex distribution in middle- and old-aged individuals. Head, neck and trunk are the common sites. They often range in size from a few millimetres to a few centimetres.They are usually slow growing, however, clinical changes such as sudden increase in size, color change and ulceration may indicate malignant change.Case Presentation:The purpose of this review is to report a case of an unusually large, seborrheic keratosis on the face, highlighting its clinical and histopathological features.The manifestations pointed towards malignancy and the patient underwent biopsy and complete excision with a favorable outcome. Investigation: Even though they are clinically diagnosed, SK mimickers are well known, with melanoma being the most worrisome. Dermoscopy is used to help with diagnosis when uncertainty arises, as various benign and malignant conditions must be considered in the differential diagnosis due to their morphological diversity.Management: Treatment options include surgical therapy,laser therapy, electrocautery, cryosurgery, shave excisions and laser-assisted removal. Conclusion:Giant SK, an atypical SK is uncommon and can manifest in an unusual way, and histopathological analysis is warranted to look for concomitant malignancy.
Copyright (c) 2026 Simran Mehra, Shweta Grover, Anupam Varshney https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0